TAO-CHIAO Chin. , religious Taoism; one of the two streams of Taoism, the other being philosophical Taoism (tao-chia). The tao-chiao embraces all Taoist schools and movements whose aim consists in the attainment of immortality (ch’ang-sheng pu-ssu). The most important of these are: the Inner Deity Hygiene School, Five-Pecks-of-Rice Taoism (wu-toumi-tao), the Way of Supreme Peace (t’ai-p’ing tao), the School of the Magic Jewel (ling-pao p’ai), the Way of Right Unity (cheng-i tao), and the Way of the Realization of Truth (ch’üan-chen tao).
The methods employed to attain immortality range from meditation to alchemical practices, physical exercises, breathing exercises, and sexual practices.
Religious Taoism is the product of several philosophical and religious movements. The teachings of Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu, and Lieh-tzu (350-250 B.C.E.), which form the basis of philosophical Taoism, also left their mark on the tao-chiao. In addition, there already existed a hygiene school whose followers strove to lengthen their life by certain breathing practices (hsing-ch’i) and physical exercises (tao-yin). There also was the doctrine of the five elements (wu-hsing), formulated toward the end of the 4th century B.C.E. by Tsou Yen, whose followers searched for the elixir of immortality (wai-tan, nei-tan). Another influence was the search for the isles of the immortals (P’eng-lai, Fang-chang, Ying-chou), which were first mentioned in Lieh-tzu’s writings.
Between ca. 220 and 120 B.C. E. the teachings of the various movements became intermingled. This development was prompted by the activities of the Taoist magicians (fang-shih) (also Li Shao-chün). That also was the time when various deities began to be venerated within the tao-chiao (Tsao-chün, T’ai-i, san-i).
During the early centuries of our era, the Inner Deity Hygiene School and other religious mass movements came into being. Western scholars often refer to these as the Taoist church. In fact, they constitute the actual tao-chiao. In the first half of the 2d century B.C.E. Chang Tao-ling founded what became known as Five-Pecks-of-Rice Taoism. His followers venerated Lao-tzu as their founder and quoted the Tao-te ching as a doctrinal source. Its leaders or patriarchs called themselves celestial masters (t’ien-shih). Not long after that Chang Chüeh established the School of the Way of Supreme Peace, whose followers the so-called Yellow Turbans in 1 84 C.E. rebelled against the central government. Both these schools made use of talismans (fu-lu) and conducted mass fasting and healing ceremonies (chai, ho-ch’i). This accounts for their extraordinary popularity.
In 140 C.E. Wei P’o-yang wrote his celebrated Chou-i ts’an-t’ung-ch’i, considered to be the oldest alchemical text preserved for posterity. In publishing his encyclopedic Pao-p’u-tzu, Ko Hung tried to unite the various streams of religious Taoism. The Pao-p’u-tzu is a systematically arranged compendium of methods and practices aimed at becoming an immortal (hsien). Around the same period the School of the Magic Jewel became established and, in the course of time, displaced the Inner Deity Hygiene movement.
In the 5th century C. E. K’ou Ch’ien-chih strove to carry out a reform by ridding Taoism of the damaging influence of the Chang lineage (t’ien-shih) and proclaiming a number of moral rules. This led to the foundation of the Northern Way of the Celestial Masters, while Lu Hsiu-ching, basing himself on the teachings of the Chang clan, founded the Southern Way of the Celestial Masters.
During the 6th century the alchemists abandoned their search for an outer elixir and turned toward the teachings on the inner elixir; this led to a gradual fusion of the practices of the followers of the inner elixir, the inner breath teachings (nei-ch’i), and Zen Buddhism. Later, Chang Po-tuan became one of the most prominent proponents of this syncretist movement.
In the 7th century the Emperor T’ang Wu-tsung de facto proclaimed Taoism a state religion: each district had to have its own Taoist temple. The Taoist canon (Tao-tsang) was compiled and first appeared in print during the Sung Dynasty. Taoism reached its greatest flowering under this imperial protection.
Under the Yüan Dynasty the Southern and the Northern Way of the Celestial Masters and various other movements merged to form the Way of Right Unity. In 1167 C.E. Wang Ch’un-yang founded the School for the Realization of Truth, which incorporated Buddhist teachings and elements of Confucianism.
Some smaller schools such as the Way of the Supreme One (t’ai-i tao) came into being during the transition period between the Chin and Yüan dynasties, but were very short lived. The survivors were the two great movements of the ch ‘uan-chen tao and cheng-i tao. The main doctrines of religious Taoism are based on the Tao, which is understood as emptiness and the primordial ground of all being.
From it arise the cosmos, the five elements, yin-yang, and the ten thousand things (wan-wu). Among its objects of veneration are the three pure ones (san-ch’ing), which are seen as personifications of the Tao, and the celestial venerables (t’ien-tsun), themost important of whom is Tao-te t’ien-tsun, i.e., Lao-tzu.
The followers of religious Taoism strive to attain physical immortality. Among the practices directed at realizing that aim are tao-yin, embryonic breathing (t’ai-hsi), nei-tan (inner elixir), wai-tan (outer elixir), fu-lu (talismans), pi-ku (abstention from eating grain), and sexual practices (fang-chung shu). The most important ceremonies are communal fasts (chai), collective confession, and healing sessions and rituals for the veneration of deities.
Source: The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Zen. Shambhala Publications, Inc.
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