Confucianism (ru-chia, Chin., roughly “School of Scholars”); a state doctrine combining philosophical, religious, and sociopolitical aspects reflected in the teachings of Confucius (K’ung-tzu). The original basis of Confucianism was the classical writings attributed to Confucius. The further development of the doctrine was decisively influenced by Meng-tzu (ca. 372-289 B.C.E.), also known as Mencius, and Hsün-tzu (ca. 313-238 B.C.E.). Central to Meng-tzu’s teaching is the belief in inherent goodness of human nature, bestowed by Heaven (t’ien) and reaching its ultimate perfection in Confucianist saints who, according to Meng-tzu, play an important role in maintaining and defending the so-called royal path (wang-tao) against erroneous views and moral decay. Hsün-tzu, on the other hand, argued that man was not inherently good and therefore had to be taught goodness. In addition he stressed the role of li as a principle of cosmic order. The ritualistic practices of Confucianism are mainly based on two sections of the Book of Rites (Li-chi, K’ung-tzu): the Great Teaching (Ta-hsüeh), which stresses the relationship between the individual and the cosmos, and the Application of the Center (Chung-yung), which describes the role of the saint as a mediator between Heaven and Earth.
Confucianism suffered for some time under the excesses of legalism, but reestablished its influence during the Han Dynasty. Under the emperor Han Wu-ti philosophical Confucianism was extended by the addition of various legalistic elements of considerable political significance and proclaimed an orthodox doctrine. The imperial academy began to employ scholars, who were responsible for the study and interpretation of the Confucianist classics. This development marked the beginning of the selection of state officials by conducting state examinations on Confucianist teachings.
An essential contribution to the development of a Confucianist state doctrine was made by T’ung Chung-shu, who combined the cosmological speculations of the yin-yang chia and the teachings concerning the five elements (wu-hsing) with the political and socioethical elements of the Confucianist classics.
Between the 3d and 8th centuries Confucianism was penetrated by the teachings of other philosophical schools, mainly of Taoist and Buddhist origin. This led to a revival of mystical traditions within the proclaimed doctrine. The I-ching, in particular, acquired its mystical significance during this period. In philosophy, the prevailing mechanistical correspondences between man and nature were replaced by a search for an inner connection with the Tao, the primordial principle of the universe. In Western philosophical terminology this phase, marked by the revival of mystical traditions and their incorporation into the Confucianist canon, is known as neo-Confucianism. The so-called Four Books (Ssu-chu), i.e., the Analects of Confucius, the Meng-tzu, the Ta-hsüeh, and the Chung-yung came to be considered more important than the Five Classics of early Confucianism. The most significant neo-Confucianist innovation consisted in providing a metaphysical rationale for traditional ethics. In this context Ii, the cosmic principle, is of special importance and central to the teachings of Chu Hsi, perhaps the most important representative of neo-Confucianism.
In the course of time philosophical speculations became increasingly predominant. The first openly critical writings date from the end of the Ming Dynasty, but it was not until the 19th century that the hollowness of orthodox Confucianist thought was clearly exposed under the scrutiny of Wes tern philosophy.
Various reforms were followed by conserva tive reversals. The official state examinations were abolished in 1905; and with this Confucianism, as an orthodox state doctrine, came to an end.
After the proclamation of a republic it was recognized that Confucianism had exerted a significant influence on the way the Chinese, as a people, see themselves. It continues to be important as a personal philosophy of life.
Source: The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Zen. Shambhala Publications, Inc.
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