BUDDHISM IN CHINA: According to Chinese tradition Buddhism penetrated into China in 2 C.E. from Central Asia. In the beginning it was regarded as a variety of Taoism and associated with Lao-tzu. The latter is said to have left China riding on an ox in order to bring his teaching to the “barbarians” in the west. Thus Buddhism was understood as the barbaric version of Taoism. This equation of Buddhism and Taoism was probably based on the fact that both religions offer a teaching of salvation and the differences between the two were not known in this early phase. One reason for this was that the Chinese language did not possess a conceptual apparatus adequate for the abstract thought of Buddhism and therefore translations had to have recourse to the terminology of Taoism. The use of familiar concepts contributed significantly to the diffusion of Buddhism in China. The 3d century saw the beginning of lively translation activity; the most important Sanskrit texts were translated into Chinese. The preeminent figures of this period are An Shih-kao, who primarily translated Hīnayāna sūtras, and Chih-lou Chia-ch’an, who devoted himself to the translation of Mahāyāna works.
In the year 355, permission was given for Chinese officials to enter the Buddhist sangha. This considerably advanced the establishment of Buddhism in China. In the 4th century the various Prajñiaparamita schools (six houses and seven schools) emerged, the most important spokesman of which was Chih-tun. In 399 Fa-hsien was the first Chinese pilgrim to travel to India. A series of others was to follow (Hsuan-tsang, I-ching).
In the 5th and 6th centuries Buddhism spread throughout China and received the support of the imperial house, which also encouraged the building of monasteries and the study of the teaching. At this time the renowned cave temples of Yun-kang and Lung-men were created. In the years 446 and 574-577 there were persecutions of Buddhism, which, however, did not hinder its rise. The translation of sūtras, thanks to the work of Kumārajīva and Paramārtha, reached a very high level. By this time all the important Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna texts existed in Chinese. The most important for the development of Buddhist philosophy were the Lankavatara-sūtra, the Mahāparinirvana-sūtra, and the Satyasiddhi, under the influence of which the Satyasiddhi, San-lun, and Nirvāna schools were formed.
During the Sui and T’ang dynasties (end of the 6th to beginning of the 10th centuries) Buddhism in China reached its high point. The great schools of Chinese Buddhism made their appearance: Hua-yen, T’ien-t’ai, Ch’an (Zen), Pure Land, Fa-hsiang. The most important spokesmen of the Buddhism of this period were Hsuan-tsang, Chih-i, and Tu-shun.
The monasteries became so powerful economically that they represented a threat to the ruling house. Since the monasteries were exempt from taxes, many peasants gave them their properties and leased the land back. In that way the peasants were able to elude compulsory labor levies and military service, while the monasteries grew ever richer. For this reason in 845 there was a further persecution of Buddhism; the monasteries were dismantled, and the monks and nuns were obliged to return to worldly life. Buddhism in China never entirely recovered from this blow; nevertheless it had already left indelible marks on all areas of Chinese culture.
During the Sung Dynasty (1Oth-13th century), there came about a fusion of Buddhist, Confucian, and Taoist thought. Of the many Buddhist schools, in any broader sense only Ch’an (Zen) and Pure Land were still of any significance. The others were reduced to the status of objects of Buddhist philosophical study. Under the Ming Dynasty (14th-17th century) Chu-hung brought about a synthesis of the Ch’an and Pure Land schools and a strong Buddhist lay movement developed.
Under the Manchurian Ch’ing Dynasty (17th to the beginning of the 20th century) Lamaism made a major advance, but soon a strong decadent tendency became visible. The Buddhism of the 20th century is characterized by an effort toward reform (T’ai-hsii) and adaptation to modernity. Under Communist rule “religious freedom” subsisted nominally, but party functionaries made it clear that citizens did not have the freedom to believe anything that conflicted with the basic principles of Communist policy. Buddhists were permitted to continue their activities within the monasteries. During the land reform of 1950-52, however, most of the monasteries were dispossessed; and the monks, whose basis of livelihood was removed, for the most part returned to worldly life. After 1957 no further ordinations took place.
In 1953 the Chinese Buddhist Association was founded, the task of which was to convey to Buddhists the directives of the government and to report on their activities. In 1956 the Chinese Buddhist Institute was founded; its curriculum also included political training. Its task was to educate Buddhist scholars and monastic administrators.
During the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) many monasteries and other Buddhist monuments were destroyed. The last remaining monks left the monasteries. After the end of the Cultural Revolution still existing monasteries were renovated; the monks, in limited numbers, could return. The Chinese Buddhist Association resumed its activities; local associations were created in all the provinces. The Chinese Buddhist Institute in Peking and other large cities was again educating monks in Buddhist philosophy. These monks, after completing their three years of study, assume leadership positions in the monasteries.
Since 1981, the journal Fa-yin (Voice of the Teaching) has appeared. It has the task of supporting the government in its religious policies; however, it also gives practical instruction for Buddhist practice and discusses problems of Buddhist philosophy.
In Taiwan Buddhism is active predominantly in its popular Pure Land form; in addition, however, there is also lively interest in the Ch’an school. Besides this “orthodox” Buddhism there is also in Taiwan a folk Buddhism that is known as Chai-chiao (Religion of the Vegetarians), which includes Confucian and Taoist elements. Its followers are lay people and wear white robes. Also in Taiwan there is a strong revival movement that wishes to adapt Buddhism to modern times and that the ref ore particularly emphasizes its scientific qualities.
Source: The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Zen. Shambhala Publications, Inc.
Documents on Chinese Buddhism
Books on Chinese Buddhism
External Links: Chinese Buddhism / Chinese Buddhist canon